ࡱ> '` 0bjbj{P{P 4@::XnnnnnnnBBB8z<L ̥*   KMMMMMM$htqn    qnn* @nn*K KB nn 94 BIьf0̥7`Yj``nߓ       qqL   ̥     D $ $,nnnnnn Critiquing causal-relationship claims Introduction Students should be familiar with the design of experiments and observational studies, and how some problems can not be investigated by experiments. For example, if someone was investigating the effects of smoking, you could not make someone smoke, you could only carry out an observational study (not an experiment). Students should be aware of what a causal claim is, and how you need to design a study in order to make a causal claim. The activity below can be used to introduce some concepts of critiquing causal-relationship claims. ProblemDoes watching TV cause a change in peoples health and/or behaviour?ActivityAsk students to perform a simple search on the internet with the key words watching television causes. On the whiteboard or equivalent, make list of all the things that watching television supposedly causes by looking at the titles generated from the search (you will probably need to look through few pages and may want to add other relevant search terms) e.g. watching TV causes asthma, obesity, depression, violence, teen pregnancy, stress, violence, autism, etc.DiscussionAsk the students what types of studies most of the articles found were based on e.g. observational or experimental. Discuss how causal claims can not be made from observational studies and why. Get students to check the language used in the articles e.g. words like correlation, linked, associated, may cause. Contrast this search for articles with a problem that is more likely to be have been investigated using an experiment e.g. psychological-related experiments Critiquing causal-relationship claims Articles or reports can be used, with questions written to assess students understanding of the following: Identifying and explaining whether an experimental or observational study has been used When causal claims can be made, and when they can not (well-designed experiments vs observational studies) Experimental design principles e.g. randomisation, double-blind, placebos, control groups Confounding variables Generalisability of the findings Statistically based reportTeacher note: This is a hypothetical newspaper article. Many studies are well executed, and students should be exposed to quality studies. This hypothetical article has been designed to help students identify and understand potential issues with experimental design. Doodling helps memory recall Research has shown that doodling improves peoples memory recall. Student researchers carried out memory tests on 50 secondary school student volunteers, asking them to listen to a phone call and recall names and places. Doodlers performed 35% better than non-doodlers. The first 25 volunteers were asked to doodle by colouring in shapes on a piece of a paper while they listened to a three minute telephone message. The other volunteers were left to their own devices while they listened. Both groups were told the message would be dull. Immediately after listening to the message, students in both groups were given 2 minutes to write down 10 names and 10 places mentioned in the message. The doodlers on average recalled 8.5, while the non-doodlers recalled 6.3. One of the researchers said that if someone is listening to something boring, then they may start to daydream and start thinking about things such as holidays. It is hypothesised that doodling keeps you more alert so you are more likely to absorb what is being said. The student researchers recommend that students should be allowed to doodle in class as this will help them learn and concentrate better.EvaluationPossible questions that could be asked about the study reported in the article: Explain why this study is an experiment rather than an observational study What are the explanatory and response variables for this study? Is it possible for either single- or double-blinding to have been used in this study? Explain why and how randomisation should have been used in this experiment? Some problems with experiments are confounding variables and generalisability. Explain why they might be a problem for this experiment. What other information would you need to know about the number of names and places recalled to assess the extent of the claimed differences between doodlers and non-doodlers? Show how was the 35% better performance for doodlers calculated The article claims that doodling improves peoples memory recall. Explain whether this is a valid conclusion or not. Worry questions that could be used with students: Who was studied? How was the sample selected? How was the study designed? Was it reasonable design? What measurements were made? How have the measurements been defined? From the sample that was obtained, can conclusions be reasonably drawn for the population of interest? Do the results make sense? Have other studies had similar findings? Are the arguments and recommendations plausible? Evaluate the study based on answers to the previous questions. Write a reasoned opinion about whether you are willing to believe the findings or need more convincing. Justify your opinion using three main pieces of evidence that you have previously identified.     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